Background
Germany pre-1871 = collection of small independent states dominated by Prussia.
1. 1871: German Empire (Deutsches Reich) created after war vs France.
2. Otto von BISMARCK (1st Chancellor) = conservative, anti-Catholic, anti-Socialist (1878 Anti-Socialist Law).
3. Bismarck’s foreign policy: peaceful after unification wars:
• Berlin Conference (1884) → divided Africa among European powers.
• Reinsurance Treaty w. Russia (to avoid threats).
4. Wilhelm II became Kaiser in 1888 (aged 29).
Difficulties of Ruling Germany
Kaiser
1. Wilhelm’s rule widely seen as a ‘disaster’:
• Dismissed Bismarck (1890), chose subservient, attractive ministers.
• Appointed ministers but ignored & bullied them → they avoided giving bad news.
• Lazy, impulsive decision-making (often w/o proper briefings).
• IMMEDIATSYSTEM bypassed ministers → lobbyists dealt directly w. him.
• Controlled both civilian & military govt (KOMMANDOGEWALT).
• Outspoken → frequent public gaffes.
• Ministers worked in silos → poor coordination (eg Schlieffen Plan ≠ account for reactions of other nations).
Weak, Complex Government
1. Govt structure = labyrinthine:
• Kaiser, Chancellor, BUNDESRAT, REICHSTAG, & Army all w. overlapping powers.
• Bundesrat & Reichstag could block Kaiser’s plans.
• States collected taxes, limiting federal revenues.
• Pressure groups (eg League of Industrialists, Agrarian League, Catholic Church) influenced policy.
• Civil Service = conservative & resistant to reform.
2. Constitution of 1871 = fragile:
• 1894 & 1912: Wilhelm’s supporters considered coups to remove it.
Prussian Militarism
1. Prussia dominated the Empire:
• 17/58 Bundesrat members were Prussian (only 14 votes needed to veto).
• Kaiser of Germany = King of Prussia.
• JUNKERS (Prussian nobles) filled Army officer roles → conservative & militaristic.
• Military Cabinet = independent & increasingly influential.
Reichstag
1. Reichstag (parliament) often undervalued but w. real powers:
• Had to approve all laws → Chancellors needed its support.
• Controlled budget → financial power over policy.
2. Rise of political parties:
• CENTRE Party (Catholic Church) & SOCIAL DEMOCRATS (working-class interests) became major forces.
• Govt increasingly influenced by Reichstag views.
Social & Economic Developments, Socialism
1. Rapid industrialisation → Germany = leading industrial power (esp iron & steel).
2. Social issues:
• Poor factory conditions, low wages, urban overcrowding → social unrest.
• 1889-90: GREAT STRIKE (290k workers, 715 strikes).
• Wilhelm sided w. workers, asking industrialists to negotiate.
3. Growth of Social Democracy:
• SPD demanded equal rights/power for workers & women.
• Mass protests (1906–10) for voting reform.
• 1912: SPD = largest Reichstag party.
4. Wilhelm’s reaction:
• 1890: Anti-Socialist law lapsed but schools taught Socialism = anti-Christian.
• 1899: anti-union legislation introduced.
Case Study: HOW Wilhelm Ruled Germany
Caprivi’s ‘NEW COURSE’
1. 1890: Bismarck resigned; Wilhelm appointed Leo von CAPRIVI (Army ally) as Chancellor.
2. Caprivi’s reforms:
• Anti-Socialist law lapsed (1890).
• Trade treaties → lower food tariffs.
• Banned Sunday work, child labour <13, & >11-hr workdays for women.
• Reduced Army service from 3 yrs → 2 yrs (1893).
3. Reactions:
• Conservatives called Caprivi a Socialist.
• Agrarian League opposed lower food prices.
• Army angry over shorter service.
• Wilhelm influenced by courtiers advocating ‘personal rule’.
4. 1894: Caprivi refused Wilhelm’s demand for anti-Socialist ‘SUBVERSION Bill’, resigned.
5. Successors (Hohenloe, von Bulow) = focused on pleasing Wilhelm, abandoned ‘New Course’, introduced Weltpolitik.
|
